Japan in the 19th century

Economic development of Japan

The bourgeois transformations carried out in Japan after the revolution of 1867-1868 directed the country along the path of capitalist development. The Japanese government took industrial development under its patronage, generously subsidizing the construction of enterprises and railways. The government paid special attention to the creation of the military industry. The expansion of industry was accompanied by its concentration. Two giant concerns began to play a major role in Japan:

Mitsui and
Mitsubishi,

competing with each other. They united banks, coal mines, factories and many other enterprises.

However, as a result of the incompleteness of the bourgeois revolution, many remnants of feudalism remained in Japan. The political sphere was dominated by an absolute monarchy. In the villages, enslaving conditions for peasants renting land from landowners continued to exist. The miserable existence of peasants and the extremely low (much lower than in Europe) wages of workers narrowed the domestic market. This circumstance strengthened the desire of Japanese capitalists to seize colonial possessions.

In order to implement an aggressive imperialist policy, the Japanese big bourgeoisie established an alliance with the samurai - the so-called Japanese nobility and the military that came from its midst.

Japan in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Read more: Features of economic development. The role of the state in the creation of modern industry. The emergence of concerns

Essay

Japan in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries

1. Meiji era. Civil war and elimination of the shogunate

At the end of the 60s of the 19th century, events occurred in Japan that radically changed the course of the historical development of this country. In official Japanese historiography they received the name “Meijijishin”, which translates as restoration of the monarchy.

The restoration of imperial power as real and the overthrow of the shogunate are a kind of key events in the political life of the country, which, on the one hand, seemed to crown the struggle of anti-shogun forces, and on the other, opened the way leading to deep social transformations.

Shogunate - formed in the XII-XIX centuries. in Japan, a form of government of the country by large feudal lords, in which the emperor was deprived of real power.

The movement to overthrow the shogunate united almost all layers of Japanese society: the peasantry, the urban poor, the opposition-minded nobility represented primarily by the lower samurai, and the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. The wide scope of the anti-shogun movement, despite the heterogeneity of its participants and the presence of serious disagreements in the leadership, testified to a crisis not only at the top, but also at the feudal system itself.

With a superficial approach to the events of 1867-1868. they can be perceived as a clash between two feudal factions: on the one hand, the Tokugawa clan (the last of the three shogunal dynasties, which ruled from 1603 to 1867), and on the other, the opposing feudal lords from the southwestern principalities (Satsuma and Choshu), who, having concluded a military alliance among themselves, opposed the shogunate, achieved its overthrow and formed a new government, where the leaders of these principalities began to play a leading role. It is important that the intensification of the struggle within the ruling class occurred against the background of the growth of a powerful peasant movement, which threatened to develop into an agrarian revolution, as well as the movement of the urban lower classes.

By 1868, revolutionary events were developing in two streams: on the one hand, the movement of the masses, which had a pronounced anti-feudal character; on the other, the struggle of the nobility represented by the “enlightened samurai”, who sought to reform the existing system and change the form of government of the country. Both of these streams, for all their independence, were not isolated from each other, but developed in close interconnection. Moreover, anti-shogun-minded samurai not only used the revolutionary movement of the masses, but often led it, directing it into the general direction of the struggle against the existing regime.

Samurai - in a broad sense - the secular nobility in Japan, in the narrow and most often used meaning - the military class of small nobles. The term "samurai" is also used to refer to the Japanese military.

At the same time, the “enlightened samurai” itself was under the strong influence of the emerging bourgeoisie and, to a certain extent, expressed its interests. Thus, among the demands put forward by the anti-shogun opposition, issues related to the introduction of complete freedom of trade and business activity occupied an important place. Of no small importance was the fact that the leading Western countries demanded that Japan abandon the “closed country” policy pursued by the Tokugawa house and open its borders to the entry of foreign goods. The southwestern principalities, which formed the basis of the anti-shogun coalition, established fairly close ties with Western countries, in particular with England, and enjoyed their support and patronage.

Thus, Japanese society in the 60s of the 19th century was characterized by the active formation of a broad coalition of various social forces united by a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the shogunate as a spokesman for the interests of large feudal lords, as a stronghold of Japanese feudalism. The victory won by the troops of the southwestern principalities in 1868 predetermined the fall of the old regime and the establishment of a new government that set a course for the development of free enterprise, the elimination of the military class, and the strengthening of the positions of new landowners and rich peasants.

Having defeated the shogun's troops, Emperor Mutsuhito entered his capital, Tokyo, and united religious and secular power in his hands. Mutsuhito's reign was called the Meiji Era or "Enlightened Reign".

2. Administrative, military and agrarian reforms

The government of Emperor Mutsuhito declared Tokyo the capital of the state and began intensive reforms that cleared the way for market relations.

In 1872, the principalities were abolished and instead of the previous four, three estates were established: the highest nobility, which included former feudal princes and the court aristocracy; the nobility, to which all former samurai were classified; simple people, which included the rest of the population, including the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. All classes were formally equal in rights. Common laws were established throughout the country and a unified judicial system was created. All regulation of professions and occupations was abolished, guilds and guilds that interfered with free enterprise were liquidated.

In December 1872, a Decree was issued introducing universal military service. The Japanese army was being rebuilt along European lines.

In 1873, an agrarian reform was carried out. She abolished feudal ownership of land, peasants received private ownership of the land they cultivated. At the same time, they had to pay a heavy land tax equal to 3 times the value of the land, and the land was valued very highly. About 1/3 of all arable land in the country was left to the so-called new landowners - people from the peasant elite, merchants, moneylenders, to whom the peasants mortgaged the land before the reform and could not buy it back. These landowners, most of whom lived in cities (“absentee landowners”), rented out land on enslaving terms to landless and land-poor peasants. Over time, most peasants lost their own land and became tenants and semi-tenants.

The government carried out important reforms in the field of education. Universal primary education according to the European model was introduced, and secondary schools and universities were created. Newspapers began to be published and books by European authors began to be translated. Missions were sent to the United States and European countries to familiarize themselves with the life of their peoples. The government ratified treaties concluded with foreign powers and established diplomatic relations with them.

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Koban, Japanese currency

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese archipelago was shaken by severe famine caused by constant crop failures. Instead of helping the population, the government began purchasing rice from the provinces and sending it to the seat of government. This course led to armed uprisings not only of the common people, but also of the regional samurai, which was the support of the shogunate. To defuse the situation, the government began to carry out “Tempo reforms” in 1841 under the leadership of Mizuno Tadakuni. Their task was to resume traditional methods of farming: conservation of the village and containment of trade relations. But the changes were unpopular, which again reduced the authority of the government.

At the same time, the authorities of the eastern Japanese isolated provinces of Choshu Han and Satsuma Han overcame economic difficulties on their own. They brought gifted samurai from the ranks into leadership and vigorously supported trade. Within a short time, both provinces had gained sufficient power to rival the shogunate.

Edo culture, Japan 17th-19th century

In the 17th-19th centuries, the traditional culture of Japan was finally formed. At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, Osaka and Kyoto were all-Japanese centers of culture and science, and in the second half of the 18th century, these functions were performed by the city of Edo. The culture of the Kyoto-Osatsu era is called the Genroku culture, and the culture of the Edo period is called the Kassho culture. They are named after the corresponding slogans of the Emperors' rule.

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The Ningyo-jururi puppet theater spread thanks to the poetic productions of playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon. In the arts, artists from the Kano, Rin and Tosa schools worked energetically. At the same time, a new style of ukiyo-e prints was created, the founder of which was Hishikawa Moronobu. In addition, exact and natural sciences, especially agronomy and mathematics, developed.

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In the 18th and 19th centuries, the level of education in Japan was one of the highest in the world. In addition to public schools for samurai, terakoya were created for ordinary people. The main subjects were writing, reading, accounting and the essence of Confucianism. In addition, new sciences were taught, for example, “the study of Holland” rangaku and “Japanese studies” kokugaku. The principles of kogutaku were founded by Motoori Norinaga, who sought to prove Japanese individuality. The reasons for the creation of rangaku were the translations of scientific works from Europe by Maeno Ryotaku and Sugita Gempaku. They helped establish Western academism in Japan. The end of the Edo era saw a rise in interest in Japanese history, spurred by the writing of Rai San'yo's Unofficial History of Japan.

Three Beauties (1793)

Nikko Brahma, Ieyasu Shrine

Japan's aggressive foreign policy

The rapid growth of Japanese capitalism was accompanied by wars of conquest. The geographical proximity of the huge but weak China and the remoteness of its major rivals gave Japanese capitalism a certain advantage. It was especially easy and convenient for the Japanese imperialists to plunder the Chinese people.

As a result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Japan defeated and thoroughly plundered China. However, not content with this, the Japanese imperialists began to prepare for a war with Russia for the redistribution of spheres of influence in the Far East. Japan sought to take over China

northeastern provinces (Manchuria) and
Korea.

The Japanese imperialists also dreamed of seizing Russian lands - the island of Sakhalin and even the entire Russian Far East. In preparation for war with Russia, Japan entered into an alliance with England in 1902.

Japanese spies and intelligence officers, taking advantage of the carelessness of the tsarist government, flooded the Far Eastern regions of Russia. Under the guise of merchants, hairdressers, laundresses, etc., they penetrated into fortified areas, found out the location of military units, their movements and combat readiness.

Japan was well prepared for war. She was provided with British and American support.

Russo-Japanese War

At the beginning of 1904, the Japanese navy, without declaring war, attacked the Russian fleet in Port Arthur and sank several warships. As a result of the surprise attack, Japan achieved superiority at sea. Taking advantage of this, she transferred a significant army to Manchuria by sea, well armed with the help of England, and began to push back the tsarist troops.

Russia, due to the fault of the tsarist government, was completely unprepared for a major war on a distant front. Despite the heroism of Russian soldiers and sailors, the tsarist army and navy were defeated. It was not Russia and not the Russian people that were defeated in this war. The tsarist regime was defeated, having criminally plunged the people into an alien imperialist war and, moreover, not being prepared for it.

Having suffered defeat, the tsarist autocracy, frightened by the growth of the revolutionary movement in the country, hastened to make peace with Japan. According to the peace treaty concluded in 1905 in Portsmouth (USA), Japan captured the southern half of Sakhalin Island, the cities of Port Arthur and Dalny on the Liaodong Peninsula, previously leased by Russia from China. Russia recognized Japan's predominant influence in Korea and Southern Manchuria. Moreover, the frightened Tsar gave Japan the original Russian land -.

The Russo-Japanese War was one of the first imperialist wars for the territorial redistribution of land by the largest capitalist powers.

Labor movement in Japan

In Japan itself, the situation of workers in the 20th century. it was still quite difficult. The workers lived in barracks and barracks, where prison rules reigned. Often workers were kept locked in barracks. There was a case when a fire broke out in one such barracks, and out of 50 female workers locked in it, 31 died in the flames. The workers received starvation wages and worked 12-14 hours a day . There was no legislation protecting workers' rights in the country.

Japanese workers began to speak out against the arbitrariness of their employers and government. Already in the 80s they tried to organize trade unions, and in the 90s a wave of strikes and demonstrations swept across the country.

During these same years, the Japanese revolutionary Sen Katayama began promoting socialism. In 1901, with the close participation of Katayama, the Socialist Party was organized in Japan . However, the Japanese government soon passed a law dissolving it. Members of the Socialist Party were subjected to repression.

Other workers' organizations arose, despite the fact that the government imprisoned anyone suspected of belonging to them.

Revolutionary sentiments grew among the working class. During the Russo-Japanese War, advanced Japanese workers sent Russian workers a letter condemning the imperialist war. At the Congress of the Second International in Amsterdam in 1904, Katayama declared the complete solidarity of the Japanese proletariat with the Russian. He demonstratively shook hands with the representative of the Russian labor movement G. V. Plekhanov. Under the influence of the Russian Revolution, the Socialist Party was again organized in Japan in 1906. One of its prominent figures was Kotoku , who sharply criticized the reformist compromisers. True, while leading the revolutionary struggle, he himself made mistakes of an anarchist nature.

To get rid of Kotoku, who was very popular among the workers, the government accused him of plotting against the emperor. Kotoku, his wife and his closest comrades were captured and imprisoned. There they suffered a terrible fate: they were strangled.

Most of the active participants in the socialist movement were thrown into prison. Police repression dealt such a severe blow to the labor movement that it temporarily died out. It revived again under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Sela

The Japanese economy of the Edo era was semi-subsistence in nature and dependent on tribute rice supplies. Its collection was carried out in villages by local officials - village heads nanusi or shoya, heads of fives and peasant delegates who controlled communal arable land, mountains and waters, and also performed various administrative functions. Decisions were made collectively. Residents of the villages were divided into fives, their members were in mutual responsibility, jointly paying tribute and preventing the commission of crimes. In one village, there were customs of mutual assistance between the fives.

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In order to stabilize the supply of tribute in rice, the shogunate banned the sale of land and limited the peasants, concentrating them exclusively on field work and various duties. Most villages paid taxes on time, considering them a matter of national importance. However, sometimes exorbitant exactions forced peasants to complain to the daimyo or directly to the shogun, or, in extreme cases, to start peasant uprisings.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS - FROM THE CONSTITUTION OF 1889

Art. 1. The Japanese Empire is ruled by a continuous imperial dynasty for eternity...
Art. 5. The Emperor exercises legislative power in agreement with the Imperial Parliament...
Art. Yu. The Emperor establishes the organization of the various branches of government, appoints and dismisses all civil and military officials and determines their salaries...
Art. 11. The Emperor is the supreme commander of the army and navy...
Art. 13. The Emperor declares war, establishes peace and concludes treaties...
Art. 33. The Imperial Parliament consists of two houses: the House of Peers and
Chamber of Deputies...
Art. 34. The House of Peers consists of members of the imperial family, holders of noble titles and persons appointed to it by the emperor...
Art. 55. Each of the ministers of state gives his advice to the emperor and is responsible to him for them.
All laws, imperial decrees and acts of every kind concerning public affairs must be sealed by the minister of state.
Art. 56. The Privy Council discusses, in accordance with the regulations concerning the organization of the Privy Council, the most important state affairs when the Emperor requests it...:
“Constitutions and legislative acts of bourgeois states”, vol. I, M., 1938, pp. 190-197.

Dates to remember

1904-1905 — Russo-Japanese War,

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