16 wonders of Japanese architecture

Japanese sculpture

started with a clay figure.
Japanese sculpture received influence from the Silk Road culture in the 5th century and subsequently from Chinese sculpture. Influence from the Western world has been received since the Meiji era. The sculptures were made in local shops and used for sculpting and painting. Most of the sculptures were discovered in front of houses and along the walls of important buildings. Tamonten in Todaiji, Wood, Edo period
Most Japanese sculptures have their origins in the idolatry of Buddhism or the animistic rites of a Shinto deity. In particular, sculpture, of all the arts, became most strongly oriented towards Buddhism. Traditionally, the materials used were metal, especially bronze, and, more commonly, wood, often lacquered, gilded, or brightly painted.

History[edit]

Ancient art[edit]

Dogu, or figurine at the end of the Jomon period
Interest in ancient art is gaining increasing strength and spontaneity, and they strive to reproduce such artistry in their works. In each case, examples of ancient art were found to have characteristics identical to modern art; and the ancient Japanese clay figurines known as dogu (土偶) and haniwa (埴輪) are no exception to this rule.

Not a single scientist has been able to accurately determine when people moved to the Japanese archipelago. It was these early inhabitants who eventually developed Japan's first native art - crude pottery and strange clay figurines called dogu, which were probably fetishes of a religious nature. Some may have been used in fertility rites, and some may have been used in exorcism or other forms of ritual.

Dogu figures are impressive with their complex and mysterious symbolism; and there is a sense of power and passion in the heavily engraved lines and swirls that adorn the figures.

Legend recorded in the Nihon Shoki

(Chronicles of Japan), which is an ancient history of Japan compiled in 720, states that the taniwa was commissioned at the time of the empress's death by the emperor, who deplored the custom of the deceased's servants and maids. following his master in death, and ordered clay figurines to be sculpted and placed around the kofunakurgan instead of sacrificing living beings. Scholars doubt the veracity of this story and argue that simple cylindrical clay pipes were the first forms of haniwa and that they were used as stakes to hold the mound's soil in place. Later, these simple cylindrical haniwa began to be decorated and take on various shapes, including the shapes of houses and pets, as well as people. They were found arranged in a circle around the mound, which confirms the scientists' theory. However, the haniwa figures undoubtedly later acquired some religious symbolism beyond their original practical purpose as stakes.

Asuka and Hakuho periods[edit]

The Shakyamuni Triad at Horyuji Tori Busshi
The emergence of the Japanese from the period of its native primitive art was caused mainly by the emergence of Buddhism from the mainland of the Asian continent around the middle of the 6th century. Along with the new religion, skilled artists and craftsmen from China came to Japan to build temples and sculptural idols, and to pass on artistic techniques to local craftsmen.

The earliest examples of Buddhist art can be seen in the accumulated splendor of the seventh-century Horyu-ji Temple at Nara, the buildings themselves arranged in a set pattern with the main hall, bell tower, pagodas and other buildings enclosed in a surrounding covered corridor. preserve the aura of the ancient era along with the countless treasures of art stored in their halls.

Nara and its surrounding area contain the vast majority of the national treasures from the early period of Buddhist art, known in art history as the Asuka period. The sculpture of this period, like almost all subsequent sculpture, shows the influence of continental art. The famous sculptor Asuka Tori Bussi followed the Northern Wei style of sculpture and founded what became known as the Tori school of sculpture. Notable examples of Tori works are the Shakyamun Triad, which are the main icons of the Golden Hall of Horyuji Temple and Kannon Boddhisatva in the Yumedono Hall of the same temple, also known as Guze Kannon.

Some of the most important Buddhist sculptures come from the subsequent Hakuhō art period, when Tang influence predominated in sculpture. The mystical, unrealistic atmosphere of Tory's early style has given way to a soft, lithe pose and an almost sensual beauty, more akin to that of Maitreya with long, narrow, slit-like eyes and delicate feminine features that, despite their pensive atmosphere, surround them. intimate accessibility. The detachment of Asuka's earlier sculpture is softened into a more natural form; and in them one can see a compromise between the divine and the human ideal.

Typical sculptures of this period are the beautiful Sho Kannon from Yakushiji Temple and Yumatage Kannon from Horyu-ji, both showing the fullness of rounded flesh in stylized folds of clothing, reflecting in their artistry the features of Gupta art transmitted into Japanese through the Tang.

Nara period[edit]

Asura 733, Kofuku-ji
From 710 to 793, Japanese sculptors mastered the high Tang style and created the "Tenpyo Sculpture" style, which exhibits a lifelike face, massive solid volume, natural drapery, and delicate conveyance of feeling. Emperor Shomu commissioned a colossal gilt bronze of the Vairocana Buddha from Todai-ji Temple and completed it in 752. Although the statue was destroyed and repaired twice, a small portion of the original remains. Among the many original works, the Asura at Kofukuji Temple is attractive, which is a statue covered with dry varnish and showing a subtle expression of feelings. The Four Guardians at Kaidanin: Part of Todai-ji Temple is a masterpiece of clay statues. Official National Factory Zō Tōdai-ji shi

("Todai-ji Temple Construction Office") produced many Buddhist sculptures by dividing the work for Todai-ji and other official temples and shrines into new items. The factory produced sculptures from gilded bronze, dry varnish, clay, terracotta, burdock, stone and silver. Mostly sculptors are secular, have official status and salary. Some private studios offered Buddhist icons to people, and some monks made them themselves.

Heian period[edit]

Taishakuten Sakra, 839, To-ji Statue of Buddha Vairocana made of gilded wood, 11th-12th centuries.
Tokyo National Museum Since the transfer of the imperial capital from Nara to Kyoto in 794, no major temples have been moved to Kyoto. The government fed new esoteric Buddhism imported from Tang China. Official factory of Zo Tōdai-ji shi

　was closed in 789. Dismissed sculptors worked under the auspices of the great temples at Nara, the new temples of the esoteric sect, the court and the novelties. Sculptors received the status of temple clergy, regardless of whether they were members of the order. Wood became the main medium. In terms of style, the Heian period was divided into two periods: the early Heian period and the later. During the early Heian period (794 - approximately mid-10th century), statues of esoteric Buddhism flourished. Kukai, Saicho and other members of the Imperial Japanese embassies in China imported the high into the later Tang style. The bodies of the statues were carved from solid blocks of wood and appear imposing, massive and heavy in comparison to works from the Nara period. Their thick limbs and rugged, almost brooding features imbue them with a sense of dark mystery and inspire awe in the beholder, consistent with the mystery of esoteric Buddhist rites. This period is characterized by heavily carved drapery, in which rounded folds alternate with sharply defined folds. Among the esoteric deities of Buddhism, the Japanese, such as Akala, created huge images of Achala.

In the later Heian period (mid-10th to 12th centuries), the sophistication of court culture and the popularity of Amida worship gave rise to a new style: delicate, calm, and refined features with more moderate proportions. Sculptors Japaneseized the faces of the images. Leader of the Pure Land Sect (Worship of Amida) Genshin and his work Ojoyoshu

influenced many sculptures.
The masterpiece is the Amida Buddha in Byodo in Uji by master Joko. He established the canon of Buddhist sculpture. He was called a master of the yosegi zukuri technique: sculptors also began to work with several wooden blocks. This technique allowed atelier masters to produce with apprentices. This resulted in the style becoming more repetitive and mediocre after Jōchō. While at school, Jocho's grandson founded an atelier that collaborated with the Imperial Court in Kyoto. In the school [ja] - the discipline of Jocho, also founded the Sanjo-Atlier in Kyoto. [ clarification needed
]

Kamakura period[edit]

Muchaku by Unkomu, Kofuku-ji by Amitabh Jodo-ji Triad by Kaikeyi
This Kamakura period is considered the "Renaissance of Japanese sculpture". Kei school sculptures led this trend; they are descendants of Jocho. They excelled in a technique called "yosegi-zukuri" (wooden block construction) and introduced a new style of sculpture: realism, representation of mood, solidity and movement, for which they studied masterpieces of the early Nara period, as well as sculptures and paintings of the Chinese Song Dynasty. On the other hand, clay, dry-lacquer, chased, and terracotta sculptures have not been revived. They mainly used wood and sometimes bronze.

The Kei school took root in Nara city, the former capital (710-793), and operated in the great temples of Nara. During the Kamakura period, the Kyoto court and the military government of the Kamakura shogunate reconstructed large temples that had been burned in the wars of the late 12th century. Many sculptures have been repaired and many buildings have been rebuilt or renovated. The project reflects the “Renaissance” character.

Among the sculptors of the school, Kei Unkei is the most famous. Among his works, the most famous are the pair of colossal Kongo-rikishi at Todai-ji, and the portrait statues of Indian priests at Kofuku-ji are elaborate masterpieces. Unkei had six sons who were sculptors, and their work was also imbued with the new humanism. Tankei, the eldest son and a brilliant sculptor, took charge of the workshop. Kosho, the fourth son, created a remarkable sculpture of the 10th century Japanese Buddhist master Kuya (903–972). Kaikey was an employee of Unkei. He was a devout adherent of the Pure Land sect. He worked with the priest Chogen (1121–1206), director of the Todai-ji reconstruction project. Many of his figures are more idealized than those of Unkei and his sons, and are characterized by beautifully worked surfaces, richly decorated with pigments and gold. More than 40 of his works have survived, many of which are signed by him. His most important work is Ono Jodoji's Amitabha Triad (1195).

Sculptors also worked for the Kamakura shogunate and other military clans. They made Buddhist and portrait sculptures for them. The colossal bronze Amitabha Buddha at Kamakura Kotoku-in was made in 1252. All sections of society contributed funds to the production of this colossal bronze. Such patronage elevated and sometimes replaced the previous patronage of the rich and powerful. [ clarification needed

]

Muromachi period and Sengoku period[edit]

Mask, 16th century
The number and quality of Buddhist sculptures decreased. New Zen Buddhism condemned images of Buddha. The great temples of the old sects were destroyed by civil wars. During this period, portrait sculptures of Zen masters became a new genre. The art of carving masks for the theater flourished and improved from the 15th to the 17th centuries.

Edo period[edit]

Netsuke of a tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century, ivory with shell inlay.
The reconstruction of Buddhist temples that burned down in the civil war required the work of sculptors. The new sculptures were mostly carved from wood, gilded or polychromed. They basically lack artistic power. However, some Buddhist monastic sculptors created unpainted, roughly carved images of wood. Enku (1632–1695) and Mokujiki (1718–1810) are representatives. They traveled throughout Japan and created enormous works for missionary and ceremonial purposes. Their archaic and spiritual style was re-evaluated in the twentieth century. The art of carving masks for Noh also continued to produce some of the best work in the 17th century.

During the Edo period, urbanization progressed in various parts of Japan, and the culture of city dwellers developed greatly. During this period

and
netsuke
became popular as accessories for men. Netsuke are intricate wood and ivory carvings, mostly animals and imaginary creatures. Since netsuke is small and easy to collect, there are many collectors even today.

Text of the book “XII centuries of Japanese sculpture”

Yuri Kuzhel 12th century Japanese sculpture

© Yu. L. Kuzhel, 2017
© A. L. Gorshkov, 2017

© Progress-Tradition, 2017

Introduction

The origin of Japanese national plastic art as a field of fine art is associated with various forms of haji ritual vessels,

clay
dogu idols,

haniwa
funerary figurines discovered in large
kofun
of the 2nd–3rd centuries.
n. e., where they buried [1] 1
Haniwa were made using the
wazumi technique,
when a long cylinder was made from wet clay, cut into pieces, the middle was taken out, and the rings were strung on top of each other, then the shape was modeled and fired.

[Close] tribal leaders and noble people. Clay haniwa depicted numerous objects of the material world: houses or shrines, utensils (cups, dishes), weapons (swords, shields), boats for funeral rituals, as well as animals, birds and people. Khanisi masters

trained not only in the craft, but also in the canon, they received knowledge from the priestly caste, with which they were closely associated. Strict regulation and high art gave rise to wonderful examples of plastic expressiveness that distinguish the ancient Haniwa. The magical sculpture of a haniwa is represented by a portrait and the sculpture itself. The historian of ancient art N.A. Iofan classifies images of priests and warriors as the first type, and peasants, servants and representatives of the aristocracy as the second type (Iofan N.A. Culture of Ancient Japan. P. 64). The established Haniwa iconography predetermined the further development of the plastic thinking of the Japanese people and was the basis for the formation of sculptural traditions that absorbed national and foreign experience.

The iconographic forms of Buddhist sculpture came to Japan from the continent, from China and Korea, where they developed primarily thanks to Indian sculpture. In turn, Indian style was influenced by the art of Central Asia, Iran, and the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. If the principles of Gandhara art (1st–2nd centuries AD) were formed under the influence of the Hellenistic Greco-Persian artistic system, then the Mathura school goes back directly to the national Indian tradition (1st century AD). The Gandhara school interpreted the image of Buddha as the embodiment of physical and spiritual perfection, which made him similar to Apollo. But behind the realism and aestheticism of the Greco-Roman tradition, Indian naturalism did not disappear: bodily beauty was given symbolic meaning. The Mathura school, not avoiding some influence from the Gandhara school, considered local experience as a priority, which led it to a system of poses and gestures, the origins of which lay in dance and ritual art. The achievements of both directions in Buddhist art were combined in the Gupta art school (Gupta dynasty 320 - ca. 535).

By the time the first Buddhist images penetrated Japan, art schools already existed in China, each of which was distinguished by its original interpretation of the characters of the Buddhist world, source materials and execution techniques. These were stone, clay, bronze, and wooden sculptures, decorated with polychrome painting and gilding. They were examples that embodied the principle of elegant proportions, careful attention to detail, and careful finishing of both the figure itself and the accompanying attributes. The diversity of Chinese schools, whose representatives settled in central Japan, at the first stage did not contribute to the development of a stylistic unity of national plastic art. Nevertheless, the artistic representations of ancient civilizations had a beneficial influence on the spiritual life of the young Japanese nation. Foreign images, acquiring local features, became their own, enriching the plastic creativity of the Japanese. Japan's inclusion in the area of ​​continental culture was manifested not only in the use of the Chinese language by the elite of society and the creation of literary works in it, but also in the adoption of the Buddhist pantheon of deities, which was built by analogy with the Indo-Chinese-Korean canon.

Japanese sculptors borrowed from their neighbors, first of all, transformed images of deities, which were expressed in giving them Far Eastern ethnic features over time. The almost Hellenistic oval of the face was replaced by a round one, thin lips became plump, and the eyes turned into narrow slits. In the "hairpiece" of the Rahatsu Buddhas,

which is a dense mass of even, finely curled hair on the head, one can read the hairstyles of young gods, athletes, created by the great sculptors of the Greek classical period - Phidias, Scopas, Praxiteles (Hermes with Dionysus, Praxiteles, 330 BC. Olympia. Archaeological Museum) and repeated by Roman sculptors. But the Greeks and Romans had curls that were not of the same shape and lay looser. By the way, Roman replicas embodied not a type, but an individual image, with pronounced emotions. The compact framing of the head with a hairstyle of small curls, of course, also had a decorative character.

Any Buddhist character, be it a Buddha detached from worldly vanity, a merciful bodhisattva who had external comeliness, which gave impetus to the creation of their female incarnations, a fierce guardian of the faith, the Heavenly King, the Holy Sovereign, etc., was endowed with a conventional pictorial complex characteristic of him, including poses, gestures, hairstyles, attire, jewelry, and attributes. Everything had an important semantic meaning, right down to the halos, mandorlas, pedestals and contained a body of knowledge accessible only to the initiate. The sculptures of punishing deities facing the viewer were distinguished by increased expression, accentuated aggression and at the same time decorative richness. In Japan, due to its modest geography, plastic art had almost no regional differences, at least in the early stages, and was subject to the general laws of established continental traditions. The Indo-Chinese iconographic canon, developed over several centuries, was adopted by Japanese sculptors, but over time acquired a national flavor. Japanese images of Buddhist deities generally corresponded to the prototypes that gave birth to them, endowed with features that corresponded to the aesthetic ideals of the historical era, social conditions, psychophysical make-up, and natural factors. The iconography of Japanese Buddhist sculpture, which absorbed the artistic, philosophical, ethical experience, cosmogonic ideas of various peoples of the countries of the East, formed a complex language of symbols, manifested in poses, gestures, and attributes of figures.

In the artistic decoration of a Japanese-Buddhist temple, the central place belongs to the altar (daiza, shumiza)

,[2]
2
In what follows in the text, the names of attributes, thrones, hairstyles, halos, mandorlas, etc. are given according to Tanaka Yoshiyasu’s book “Butsuzo no sekai” (“The World of Buddhist Sculpture”).

[Close] architecturally simple or with a complex configuration in terms of a multi-stage terrace. But whatever form the altar took, statues of Buddhist deities were placed on it in a strict hierarchical order. The problem of the daidza pedestal is considered very important, since with its help the problem of separating the figure from the real world and demonstrating its special sublime character and belonging to the higher spheres was solved. The pedestal has tectonic features, an artistic reflection of the design of the object. It does not suppress the sculpture, but also does not act as an accompanying decorative element or appendage. The details of the pedestal do not distract attention from the statue, do not harm it, but emphasize the image. The pedestal in artistic form indicates the objects of the image, the diversity of which is dictated by the multitude of deities.

The most common pedestal for Buddhas is the eight-tiered lotus throne rengehashuza,

representing an octogonal architectural composition ending at the top with an open bowl made of a cascade of lotus flowers, which is framed at the bottom by a circle imitating a water surface.
The lotus throne spoke of the moral purity of the deity. Each of its components has its own name: renniku
and
ramben
(directly flat seat and multi-petaled flower -
renge),
further down
uekaeribana
(inverted flower),
kebana, kebana ukeita, shikinasu, kesoku
- legs resting on
ukeza, shitakaeribana, uwagamachi
and
shitagamachi
( the last two terms are combined into one -
kamatiza).
Buddhas sat on such picturesque splendor.
The three-tiered pedestal of rengesanjuza,
on which the bodhisattvas stood, consisted of lotus leaves directed upward
by gyoren,
downwards by
kaeribana
and a rectangular
kamati base.

(sendaiza)
pedestal personifying the center of the Universe - Mount Sumeru (Shumisen), could from the facade imitate the lower part of the Buddhist robe -
a mo skirt,
therefore it was also called
mogakeza (mokakeza).
The classic shumiza throne consisted of two inverted stepped trapezoids, with an insert decorated between the small bases.
The trapezoids, each consisting of sixteen protrusions directed respectively from center to center, correspond to thirty-two deities from the Vajra World. This throne for the central figure of the Triad Buddha and the healing Buddha Yakushi (Yakushi Ruriko nyorai) could also be used for other deities (Suiten, Ashura, Taishaku-ten). Thrones in the Japanese style - vayo shumiza,
tall, octagonal in plan, or in Chinese -
karyo shumiza,
elongated horizontally and reminiscent of a bed with a decorative fence-frame in the head and lower parts, became variations of the shumiza.
Of the thrones imitating flowers, a kayoza was used in the form of an opened water lily (Karuna sat on it). pedestal (banjakuza)
resembled a pile of stones or an
iwa
mounted on a kamachi base, and was intended for the Heavenly Kings
ten,
or
tembu,
trampling the
jama demons.
The classic throne for the Light Kings,
shishitsuza,
was in plan two trapezoids of six different-sized planes cut out at angles, connecting in the center of a seventh, smaller in size and without protrusions.
Suhamadza
was supposed to evoke a sandbank with flat stone slabs, as if cut by sea bays.
Most often, the figures of the Ten Disciples of Daideshi, Hachibushu (Lord of the Eight Parts of the World) and Nijuhachibushu (Lord of the Twelve Parts of the World) were placed on them. The kashoza
throne in the form of inverted lotus leaves spread over the convex surface was intended for the sculpture of the Historical Buddha Shakyamuni (Shijo no Butsu) in childhood.
Historical Buddha under the tree of wisdom and enlightenment bodhi
(boshin) [3]
3
Having gained enlightenment, for three times seven days the Buddha preached to the gods and bodhisattvas about peace and universal unity (“Flower Decoration Sutra” - (“Kegonkyo”).

[Close] usually sat on a square platform. chojuza (kinjuza) were widespread

installed on a low base.
The sacred animals that could carry Buddhas and other deities were, first of all, the lion ( shishiza throne),
since the Historical Buddha was also called the lion of the Shakya clan.
One or more lions carried Buddha, the Teacher of the Law. The lion throne emphasized the royalty of the Buddha; in addition, according to Indian legend, this king of beasts was always next to the Buddha. The legendary Manjushri (Monju Bodhisattva), Dainichi Buddha, Hokkai Kokuzo Bodhisattva, Kongara Doji, and Rasatsu (on a white lion) sat on the lion. In addition, a white elephant (there could be several of them, intended for Fugen, Asyuku, Kongo Kokuzo, Taishakuten), a lying ox (Dai Itoku myo), a white ox (Emmaten), a black ox (Daijizaiten), a blue ox ( Katen), yellow ox (Izanaten) - all oxen are classified as ushi, as well as five horses (Nititen, Hosho, Hoko Kokuzo, Nemyo bosatsu), mythical bird, snake destroyer, Garuda[4] 4
In Buddhism, a huge bird whose wings move causes a storm, depicted with a snake in its beak. In Hinduism, Vishnu's riding bird is depicted with the body of a man and the head of an eagle.

[Close] (Naraenten, Gyoyo Kokuzo, Fukujoju), turtle (Suiten), white geese (Gatten), boar (Marishiten),[5]5

One of the three best sculptures of Marishiten standing on a boar, according to legend, belongs to Prince Shotoku Taishi (more on him later), in 1708 it was placed in the Tokudaiji Temple (Edo). The image of Marishiten, who came from India and China, was revered among the army, and initially he stood guard over the Buddha Law. With his left hand raised upward, Marishiten drives away evil forces, and in his right hand he holds a sharp sword. Marishiten of Tokudaiji is credited with the ability to eliminate evil, bring peace and prosperity to the home, and promote the prosperity of trade. In India, six types of images of Marishiten are known: One-Faced Two-Armed, Three-Faced Six-Armed, Three-Faced Eight-Armed, Three-Faced Sixteen-Armed, Five-Faced Ten-Armed, Six-Faced Twelve-Armed. In Japan, there are mainly Three-Faced Six-Armed and Three-Faced Eight-Armed and Three-Eyed. The following attributes may belong to him: bow, vajra, solar disk, arrow, lunar disk, needle, thread, halberd, sword. The unusual attributes of a needle and thread indicate the ability to sew up the mouths and eyes of evil people. There are both female and male images of Marishiten, whose clothes are painted in white, yellow, purple, gold, blue, and red.

[Close] the doe (Futen), the demons (Daigen myo) and Myomonten, who sits on a type of yakusha oni devil,

Uzusama myo on the devil
binayaka
and peacock (Kujakuten myo, Amida, Renge Kokuzo, Kumaraten).
Seirekiza
served as a pedestal for the Four Heavenly Kings and one of the Light Sovereigns, Gosanze myo, who trampled underfoot evil demons and foreign deities. The massiveness of the statue determined the size of the pedestal; small figures were placed on small bases.

Pedestal of Buddhas

The location of the deity on the pedestal spoke of his correlation with the center of the universe. The multi-figure compositions of the thrones reflected ideas about the inexhaustibility of the world, its immensity and unity: the concepts of the Universe were systematized in the altar composition. He was a kind of model of the world order, embodying a certain view of the essence of the existence of the entire human race and each soul individually. The placement of figures in a certain sequence, often along the cardinal points, spoke of the planetary nature of Buddhism, the balance of the world, immersed in the interaction of different principles. The laws of the universe were associated with the stories of certain deities. The altar was tectonically fused with the plot design of the walls, ceiling, and doors, with which it was in harmony in style. Architectural, pictorial, decorative and plastic principles were combined in the temple space. Buddhist sculpture was in interaction with the architecture of the temple, interior details, and obeyed the laws of its tectonics. Architecture often determined the scale of sculpture and its place in the temple, establishing, if not a direct, then an indirect connection with sculpture, which was not assigned a secondary role in the space of the temple. Their mutual attraction to each other was determined by natural physicality, subordination to the laws of statics (Vipper B.R. Introduction to the historical study of art. P. 100). The plastic thinking of master carvers, embodied in statues, actively influenced the organization of the internal space in which people’s ideas about the universe were expressed (Vinogradova N. A. Sculpture of Japan. P. 61). Sculpture, to some extent, sought to gain independence, the ability to live outside of architecture. To a greater extent, this freedom of sculpture concerns round sculptural statues, designed to walk around, in a way, “feeling plastic forms.”

The darkness of the space, in which only the halos and mandorlas of the figures, details of clothing, pedestal, etc. shine, creates an ideal atmosphere for the worshipers to concentrate on the main thing with which they came to the deity. In the center of the artistic altar space is the main statue (honzon

– “truly revered”;
non-main sculptural images are called kyakubutsu,
literally “guest buddhas”), most often in a static frontal pose, canonizing the position of the torso and legs
(asana):
sitting figures -
zazo,
standing -
ryudzo
and lying -
nehanzo
. [6]
6
If at the beginning of the period The Heian era was dominated by seated figures of Shakyamuni, but in the last period the number of standing figures of the historical Buddha increased, and in the Kamakura era almost all were standing.

[Close] The latter, extremely rare, symbolized liberation from psychophysical activity, being in parinirvana. The most common pose is sitting, embodying the desire for peace and inner contemplation (another name for suwarikata)

.[7]
7
There is another gradation of poses (shisei) relative to the vertical: with a backward bend (sorimi) - Shakyamuni from Muroji, strictly vertical (chokuritsu), - Amida from Hokaiji, with a forward bend (maetaore (daore) - Kojinzo. In the sorimi pose, seated deities were depicted from the Nara to the Heian period, in the chokuritsu pose during the Fujiwara years, and in the maetaore pose from the end of Kamakura.Laity was also depicted in this pose.

[Close] It exists in a considerable number of varieties (about 20), which are determined by the position of the legs. In the kekkafuza kichijoza

right leg with an inverted, completely flat foot [8]
8
One of the thirty-two bodily signs of the Buddha is
sokkaampeiritsuso.
[Close] lies on the left thigh of the leg, and the left one on the right, in the kekkafuza gomaza

both legs are crossed, the feet are turned outward, but the left leg covers the right.
In hankafuza,
i.e. “half” fuza, the open foot of only the right leg is visible, lying on the left.
With rinnoza,
the foot of the right leg bent at the knee lies on the inverted foot of the lying left leg.
The position of kidza
resembles sitting on your heels, and
iza
on a chair (isu - chair).
A character in the hanka fumisage
sits on a raised platform, with the right leg thrown over the hip of the lowered left leg. The seated statues form a single whole with the throne, inseparable from it, forming a tectonic mass. The high seat gives the figure a monumental look. Dynamic relationships are outlined only in various gestures of the hands, fingers intertwined in mudras, but at the same time the torso most often remains motionless. The figures shown in full growth are static or sometimes they are given movement, which acquires special dynamics when they are depicted, for example, in a dance pose: the right leg is bent at the knee and raised high above the ground.

The sculpture behind the head is surrounded by a halo of dzuko,

in the upper part, superimposed on a circle
of shinko,
or
kyoshinko,
framing the figure.
This composition is inscribed in the kohai mandorla,
indicating the divine origin of the character.
In traditional Japanese iconography, according to the nature of the kohai, two types of plastic are determined: the first is the mandorla for the entire sculpture of the ikko sanzon,
the second is the halo above the head of the deity in the form of
a hoshu,
reminiscent of the spire of the Horyuji Temple in Nara.
Halos are mostly round in shape in the form of a solar disk - the simplest rinko.

Enko
halo [9]
9
Most likely associated with the enso symbol in the form of a circle, expressing perfection, the cosmic body of the Buddha, truth, enlightenment, etc.

[Close] consists of several concentric circles decorated in the center with the traditional Chinese floral pattern of karakus,

and in the center there is a pattern of lotus flowers.
hojuko
halo is permeated with rays of different sizes radiating from the center, and the
hojuko halo
is depicted in a flash of flames, creating the illusion of a huge number of
hoju jewels.
Kyoshinko mandorlas, as a magnificent background for the entire figure, are also distinguished by their artistic diversity.
These are funagata kohai
in the form of a boat with a strongly pointed nose, polyconcentric
nijuenko with floating circles,
reminiscent of lotus petals,
kaenko,
which are a solid stylized flame, and
hitenko,
similar to nijuenko in two circles inscribed in the main part of the mandorla, but decorated with reliefs of celestial beings
Hiten.
The lights around the figures of various shapes symbolize divine light.

Buddhist cult sculpture is closely connected with the rich symbolism of gestures-mudras, i.e. ritual seals (inso, soin, inkei, mitsuin, shuin

or simply
in)
- these “thoughts of the Buddha”, helping those praying to understand what the Teacher of humanity preaches.
Inso originate in Brahmanism, and in the practice of the esoteric school of Shingon they acquire important significance. Mudras are one of the three sacraments - the “sacrament of the body”, along with mantras and mandalas (varieties of the Buddhist picture of the world), contribute to the achievement of enlightenment. The Divine in Buddhist sculpture is manifested, among other things, through “seals”, which give the figure significance. They are filled with esoteric meaning and wisdom. The five fingers, long and thin (choshiso,
one of the thirty-two signs of the Buddha), associated with the five primary elements
(gogyo),
are collected in combinations symbolizing various mental states. The meaning of mudras, which have Indian roots, may be interpreted somewhat differently on Japanese soil, but, in general, the original Buddhist symbolism is preserved, revealing the metaphysical aspect of the ceremony taking place. The instructions and intentions of the main deity are conveyed through the various positions of the palms and fingers. The Great Sun Sutra (Dainichikyo), considered one of the main ones in the Shingon Buddhist esoteric school, describes more than 130 mudras, of which 31 are for Great Buddhas, 57 for deities and 45 for other images. In a sutra of the 7th century. "Daranijikkyo" provides a list of more than three hundred mudras.

The typology of mudras distinguishes between muso (mugyo)

– absence of the sign “so” (gyo) and
uso (ugyo)
– presence of “so” (gyo).
Mugyo is from the area of ​​esotericism, when the state of sammai
(concentration) is achieved without the use of mudras, and “ugyo” presupposes the presence of various visible objects in the hands and the intertwining of fingers in a “seal”.
As explained in the Great Sun Sutra, in ingyo, "in" refers to the object in the hands, while "gyo" refers to the color - blue, yellow, red, etc. or the shape of the attribute - oval , triangular, etc. In addition, inso and sacred attributes replace the “revered” in one of the four mandalas - sammaya mandara.
Mudras play the role of a metaphysical symbol, allowing, in general, to determine the deity, since each has a certain type of “seal”.
For example, the fingers of the Universal Buddha Dainichi (Mahavairachana) are intertwined in the mudra tikenin
- vajra fist mudra (if from the World of Vajra) or
hokkai join
(from the World of the Womb), for Amida the mudras
semuyin
or
amida join are characteristic,
for Shakyamuni -
sokutiin,
and for Yakushi
anyin
(vitarka mudra) or semuyin. As G. Korolkov rightly noted (Korolkov G.M. “Letters to a Dead Friend”): “Mudra is a way of creating a certain energy configuration using different folding of the fingers, a tool for a person to work with his body and the space around it, a way of creation and control creation." The same applies to folding the legs in a certain way, i.e., different contours are created, different fields are formed, and a person becomes able to tune in to the frequency of the subtle energies of the Universe. It also says that each finger is given its own meaning: thumb - concentration of will, index - ego, middle - feelings, ring - vital energy and life-giving force, little finger - creative abilities (Korolkov G. M. Letters to a dead friend. P. 248) .

In the hands of the images are sacred objects jimotsu:

lotus flower, bell, scepter, sword, vessel, wheel of Law (Dharma) with eight spokes symbolizing the eight stages of the Noble Path
(hatisei)
[10]
10
Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right thinking, right speech, right conduct, right way maintaining life, correct application of strength, correct memory, correct concentration.

[Close], etc. They are grouped into sections. These are, first of all, wheels, or chakras, going back to solar symbolism, the vajra club as a divine weapon that shoots lightning, from the area of ​​mythological ideas about the omnipotence of the thunder god, [11] 11

In Hindu mythology, Indra’s weapon, the thunder club, in Buddhism, is a symbol of strength (“lightning strike”).

[Close] mani

, or the pearl of wish fulfillment,
nyirin
(hoju), i.e., the willingness of the Buddha and bodhisattvas to listen to requests and entreaties, the patra bowl
(hati)
for collecting alms, [12]
12
In iconography, there is the hatiin mudra
(
patra mudra), which is two parallel facing palms, between which may be a begging bowl used by nuns or monks. Usually in life it was metal or clay.

[Close] personifying virtue, the good deed of a person giving alms, and, like other vessels, suibyo,

containing the Teaching, as well as a rosary
(hoju,
or
juzu)
with 108 beads according to the number of worldly passions and ways to get rid of them.[13]
13
Rosary beads have ancient Indian roots and were used in ritual practice. The number of beads must be a multiple of nine, i.e. 54, 27, 18; if there are 32 beads, then this number correlates with the 32 bodily signs of the Buddha. The full version of the rosary of 108 beads includes four inserts of 18, 21, 27 and 54 grains, as well as a pendant of three beads - a symbol of the trinity: Teaching, Buddha and Community.

[Close] Beech weapons,

represented by various types (
ono hatchet,
hoko
pike,
bow
,
ya arrows, etc.), does not indicate violence, otherwise there would be a contradiction with the religious and philosophical system of Buddhism, but declares the victory of the Teaching over evil and ignorance.
Weapons cut off doubts and cut through knots of contradictions. The iconographic type of vajra (kosho)
is a club with multidirectional teeth - two, three, four (four periods of the Buddha's life, four noble truths), five, nine, and a cross-shaped vajra indicates the spread of the Buddha's teachings to all directions of the world.

The numerous hands of the goddess of mercy and compassion, Bodhisattva Thousand-Armed Kannon, also hold various sacred objects that help save people: a halberd (geki),

a hatchet, a cord tied in a loop (lasso,
kensaku),
a bow, an arrow, as well as lotus flowers
(renge),
a bell
(gokorin),
a jug
(suibyo),
a willow twig
,
a golden ring
(kinkan),
a cloud
(kumo) ,
sun disk
(nitirin),
lunar disk
(gachirin),
shell
(kai),
palace
(kyuden),
fly racer
(hossu)
, [14]
14
Hossu (Sanskrit kamara) symbolizes the veneration of the Buddhist Law and the idea of ​​“thou shalt not kill.” Since it is made from the tail of a deer, the leader of the herd, it also means the spiritual leadership of the Teacher.

[Close] staff-scepter with a pommel made of rings (shakujo),

etc. The eyes on the palms of deities are a sign of their omniscience.

With the help of the lasso, living beings are liberated from the world of suffering and at the same time, vices are neutralized by it. The lotus, reaching towards the light from the muddy water, personifies the purity of thoughts, virtues and perfection of the deity. The bell in the Buddhist tradition is at the same time the “voice” of the Teaching, dispelling ignorance and evil forces, as well as a symbol of transience and impermanence: the sound produced does not linger, but disappears. Swastika (khoin)

in multi-armed deities, it reproduces the Buddhist canon, rooted in the ancient Indian tradition, where such an image was a solar symbol and associated with the concepts of generosity and good wishes. Buddhist sculpture, fused with architecture and decorative arts, appears in the diversity and significance of its manifestations. Moreover, as the Russian Buddhist scholar O. O. Rosenberg pointed out in a lecture at the first Buddhist exhibition “On the worldview of modern Buddhism in the Far East” in St. Petersburg in 1919: “The position of the hands, objects when depicted, the grouping of images - all this has a precise meaning , this is, in essence, a depiction in pictures of the same thing that Buddhist abstract philosophy talks about - this is the same teaching about salvation from the shackles of existence.”

The Buddha's monastic robe with soft draped folds is a classic mantle (kesa,

or
daye,
or
noe),
thrown over the left shoulder.[15]
15
Kesa, sewn from five pieces of material -
gojogesa,
from seven -
shichijosegesa.
There are two main ways to put on the vestment:
tsuken
or
tsuryo kempo,
in which the fabric is thrown from the right shoulder to the left, where it is secured, and
hentan uken -
the fabric is threaded under the right elbow, leaving the arm and part of the forearm exposed. They include various options for wrapping the body with fabric.

[Close] According to legend, Shakyamuni himself sewed it from quadrangular pieces of fabric of different sizes, which he did not purchase, but selected fundzoe,

following his vow of poverty.
This robe became the standard for all gods and monks. The loose material received its form from the body draped over it. If the buddhas' robe, which exposed the right shoulder and the mo skirt with broken lines of folds, remained unchanged, then the bodhisattva clothes, the upper part of which was sogisi,
leaving the right side of the chest open, the
kun skirt,
or
mo,
like the Buddhas, was transformed, acquiring local characteristics.
Over time, and in the style of clothing of bodhisattvas, in particular Kannon, there has been a tendency to move from tight-fitting clothing, emphasizing the physicality of the character, to a loose fit. The clothing was dominated by deep folds of hida,
draperies caught with decorative brooches, scalloped hem patterns, and flying airy scarves
of tenne,
or
tenya.
Large and small folds were cut out and the impression of folds on clothing twisted in the form of rolling waves was created.
This style was called hompashikiemon.
It was often possible to draw analogies with court Japanese or continental clothing, in which the deities came closer to the human image, becoming clearer and more accessible. Clothing, despite its original design, participated in the life of the statue: it served the body, revealed its physicality, making it insensible, or hid or exaggerated its forms. At her best she was in balance with the body.

Buddhas of the three worlds: past, present and future

A special place in Japanese sculpture was given to the image of Nyorai

(tathagata) – Thus come.
Temple buildings in which sculptures of Buddhas were placed occupied a certain place on the territory in accordance with the cardinal directions: the temple with the Buddha of the future Miroku (still a bodhisattva) Mirokudo was located in the north, with Amida in the west - Amidado, with Yakushi in the east - Yakushido and with the main Buddha Shakyamuni in the south is Shakado. They concentrated around a pond. The three Buddhas Amida (Dipankara), Shaka (Shakyamuni) and Miroku (Maitreya) were perceived as the Buddhas of the three worlds of Sanzebutsu:
respectively, the past
Kakobutsu,
the present
Genzaibutsu
and the future
Miraibutsu,
personifying the immortality of Buddhism.
For example, three figures of these Buddhas, as symbols of peace and happiness, are located in the temple - Sennyuji, Kyoto (Kamakura era, important cultural property - juyo bunkazai).
At first glance, they are equal in size and identical.
But Buddha Shakyamuni sits on a pedestal, which is slightly different in configuration and height, and the mudras are different. Miroku's left hand rests calmly on his knee, palm down (for Shakyamuni, palm up), personifying the expulsion of demons - komain mudra.
The moment Miroku achieves enlightenment, the forces of evil will disappear.

Buddhist sculptures, which are now admired by both art historians and ordinary temple visitors, most likely until the end of the 19th century. were not considered as artistic objects. These were, first of all, sacred relics that were only worshiped, and not works of art. This is probably why in the diaries of famous Japanese of the Middle Ages and the New Age there are no descriptions of the merits of examples of Buddhist art. Thus, the author of “Pilgrimage to Yoshino” (“Yoshino no mode no ki”) Sanjonishi Kin’eda (1487–1563) when visiting Horyuji Temple in Nara focused only on the ceremony of veneration of the holy relics of Buddha and the veneration of the Bommyokyo sutra (“Brahmajala Sutra”). and does not mention a word about the magnificent temple sculptures (Keen D. Wanderers through the Ages. P. 202).

The conservatism of art was consecrated by closeness to the model, appeal to the prototype. A similar criterion was the basis for assessing the sculptor’s talent and the degree to which he embodied a given ideal. But it was precisely the canonicity that gave rise to the significance of any work of fine art fused with Buddhism. The visual transmission of religious ideas revealed the talent of the artist, who used knowledge, craft, and a system of figurative language to establish contact with the worshiper, who gazed intently at the object of worship. The example of life, the exploits of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, deities of various ranks and significance introduced a person into deep experiences and led to understanding the instantaneous and infinite in time and space.

In all periods of the history of Japanese plastic culture, the main characters to be depicted were Shakyamuni and the Buddha Yakushi (from Asuka to the end of Edo), Miroku and Dainichi (respectively, except Asuka and Tempyo and Asuka, Hakuho and Tempyo), Miroku (except Asuka, early and middle Heian). Saint Kannon was paid attention to by sculptors to one degree or another throughout all eras of the development of sculpture, and the Thousand-Armed Kannon and the Eleven-Faced Kannon remained out of sight only in Asuka and Hakuho. Jizo, Fudo myo and Bishamonten began to be depicted starting from the Konin years, and Shitenno were loved by sculptors from Asuka to the end of Edo, the guards of the Nio gates were ignored only in the Asuka, Konin and early Heian periods, and the twelve generals of Jun Shinsho - in Asuka, Hakuho and Konin.

In Japanese historiography there is no single point of view on periodization associated with artistic creativity, especially in the early Middle Ages. Researchers offer different options. For example, within the Asuka period there is a sub-period of Hakuho, which is also called early Nara, and it extends from 645 to 709, and the next sub-period Tempyo, or late Nara, covers the years from 710 to 783. Further, the years Konin - Jogan, or early Heian (810–824, 859–877); Fujiwara sub-period (late Heian 894–1184). In this study, we generally adhere to a less fractional periodization: Asuka (538–710), Nara (710–781), Heian (781–1191), Kamakura (1192–1333), Muromachi, or Ashikaga (1338–1573) ), Azuchi-Momoyama (1574–1600), Edo, or Tokugawa (1600–1867).

Contemporary art[edit]

Mythical group in bronze, after 1881, Halili Collection of Japanese Art

Introduction of Western methods[edit]

The stimulus of Western art forms brought sculpture back into the Japanese art scene and introduced plaster casting, heroic outdoor sculpture, and the Parisian School's concept of sculpture as an "art form". Such ideas were adopted in Japan at the end of the 19th century, along with the return of state patronage and the rejuvenation of sculpture. During the Meiji and Taisho eras, Japanese sculpture moved from the making of religious objects to decorative objects and eventually to fine art. [1] International exhibitions introduced Japanese cast bronze to new overseas audiences, leading to strong praise. [2] Past History of the SamuraiJapanese metalworkers equipped weapons to create metal finishes in a wide range of colors. By combining and processing copper, silver, and gold in varying proportions, they created specialized alloys including shakudo and shibuichi. With such a variety of alloys and finishes, the artist could create the impression of a full-color decoration. [3]

After World War II, sculptors abandoned the figurative French school of Rodin and Maillol in favor of aggressive modern and avant-garde forms and materials, sometimes on an enormous scale. These new experimental sculptures featured an abundance of materials and techniques that also incorporated the international art ideas of "op" (optical illusion) and "pop" (popular motif). A number of innovative artists were also sculptors, painters or engravers, and their new theories transcended material boundaries.

1970s[edit]

In the 1970s, ideas of contextually placing natural objects made of stone, wood, bamboo and paper in relationship with people and their environment were embodied in the mono-ha school. Mono-ha artists emphasized materiality as the most important aspect of art and put an end to the anti-formalism that had dominated the avant-garde in the previous two decades. This emphasis on the relationship between objects and people was ubiquitous throughout the art world and led to a growing recognition of "Japanese" qualities in the environment and a return to native artistic principles and forms. Among these precepts were respect for nature and various Buddhist concepts, which were used by architects to solve problems of time and space. Western ideology was thoroughly revised and much was rejected as artists turned to their own environment - both internal and external - for support and inspiration. From the late 1970s to the late 1980s, artists began to create a vital new art that was both modern and Asian in its sources and expression, but still very much part of the international scene. These artists focused on projecting their own individualism and national styles, and not on the adaptation or synthesis of exclusively Western ideas.

Outdoor sculpture, which came to the fore with the advent of the Hakone Open Air Museum in 1969, was widely used in the 1980s. Cities supported huge outdoor sculptures for parks and plazas, and major architects planned to use sculptures in their buildings and urban layouts. Museums and outdoor exhibitions flourish, emphasizing the natural placement of sculpture in the environment. Since hard sculpted stone is not native to Japan, most outdoor pieces were created from stainless steel, plastic or aluminum for "tension and compression" machines in mirror-finished steel or for sleek, cutting-edge forms in polished aluminum. The strong influence of modern high technology on artists has led to experimentation with kinetic forms of stretching, such as flexible arcs and "info-ecological" sculptures using light. Video components and video art developed rapidly from the late 1970s to the 1980s. New Japanese experimental sculptors could be understood as working with Buddhist ideas of permeability and rebirth in structuring their forms, in contrast to the general Western concept of sculpture as something with finite and permanent contours.

In the 1980s, many sculptors actively used wood and natural materials, who now began to place their work in patios and indoor spaces. Additionally, the Japanese sense of rhythmic movement, embodied in repetitive forms as "systematic gestural movement", was used both by long-established artists such as Kyubey Kiyomizu and Hidetoshi Nagasawa, and by a younger generation led by Shigeo Toya.

Netsuke

Small figures, designed to serve as a special keychain supporting a small box for small things that was carried with you (there are no pockets in a real kimono), are real works of art. Of all the types of netsuke, only a few can be considered sculptures - these are katabori (depictions of people and animals), anabori (multi-figure compositions carved as if between the valves of a shell), men (theater masks). In fact, today it is difficult to find real, antique netsuke; most often in souvenir shops you can only find plastic stamps. Although in many museums you can buy excellent copies of ancient netsuke for 35-40 dollars (the cost of a real collector's item can reach hundreds of thousands of dollars).

Links[edit]

• Japan This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ .
• An Approach to Japanese Culture
  , Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, The Japan Times
• Earl, Joe (1999). Meiji Splendor: Treasures of Imperial Japan: Masterpieces from the Halili Collection
  . St. Petersburg, FL: Broughton International Inc. ISBN. 1874780137. OCLC 42476594.